Benefits of the CalTex plant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Benefits of the CalTex plant - Essay Example The utilitarian benefits are many for both CalTex and the people of South Africa. Many needed jobs would have been created for workers in South Africa. Native South African would have taken many of these jobs. A job at a CalTex plant might be their best means for improving their own economic situation. CalTex had a history of paying better than average wages and they were also known for promoting employees from within. I know that if I were a black South African, I would have been very upset about the unfair political situation in my own country. But I also know that I would love to have the sort of economic opportunity that would be provided to me by working for a good paying corporation like CalTex. I think I would understand that CalTex was not the reason behind the current political system. I do not believe I would even feel that their presence aided the current political system or helped to keep it in power. The utilitarian benefits I would see as a native South African would be great. I would have a dependable job, food on the table and a possibility for working my way up in a company. I would be living in an unjust society, but I would not blame CalTex for doing business in my country. It is true that the white controlled government would get a more stable supply of petroleum products if the CalTex expansion occurred, but that same expansion meant that all South Africans would have access to more abundant, cheaper petroleum products. The reality of the situation is, South Africa had enough of their own engineers to make their own petroleum refineries. If CalTex completely divested, the only loser would be the corporation. If I were a stockholder, voting on the first two resolutions would have been very easy decisions. I would not have voted to cease operations in South Africa. This would have resulted in a huge drop in the price of my stock. It would have been like taking money out of my pocket and throwing it away for no good reason. There is no way tha t ceasing operations in south Africa would have helped bring the government down or change the rights of the people there. I would have voted a strong no on the first resolution. The second resolution would have received a no vote from me as well. This is quite a ridiculous proposition when you think about it. The proposition required CalTex to withhold sales to the South African government and military. My reason for not voting for this crazy proposition is it creates a litmus test for buying CalTex oil. It basically says that if you are not conducting yourself in a moral manner then we will not sell oil products to you. The problem is simply this, who gets to decide how bad is too bad? A corporation needs to not split hairs determining if a customer is moral enough to buy their product. The American government has been beset by scandals and there is plenty of history of racism and repression. Does this mean CalTex will no longer sell to America? What about the Chinese? The Italian s? All nations have blemishes and inherent injustices built into their systems. It is not the job of a corporation to try to sort all of them out morally. If they have cash, then you sell. The third proposition would have gotten a yes vote from me. Looking at the Tutu principles, I think is would be in the best interest of the company to abide by them. Caring for the family unit and supporting it would have

The American History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The American History - Essay Example There arose great tension between Great Britain troops and colonial militiamen in Lexington. April 1775 kicked off the armed conflict, and one year later, the rebels were waging the full-scale war for their independence. France joined to support the Continental Army to force the British to give up their power. Finally the British surrendered at Yorktown, Virginia, in1779, and the Americans won their independence, though fighting did not formally end until 1783. These were the founding fathers of America. Just after the revolutionary war, these men came with a political system that was entirely novel for an era in which monarchs ruled most countries around the world. Just after having being freed from the British Empire, the fledgling king would have no king at all. Instead, an elected head referred to as the President of the United States of America would be elected (Michener). The president would be the leader of the federal government, enforcing the laws of the land, and acting as the commander -in- chief of the armed forces. And yet, while the presidency has since become the emblem of the American way of life, the country might have gone in a very different direction before George Washington took the oath of office on April 30, 1789, many Americans envisioned a crown for the wildly popular Virginia planter. Washington refused, and so did the farmers of the Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington D.C., and a big mansion that would be called the White House. After Washington's reign as president then followed a series of others like John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt all the way up to the current president who is actually the first black president of the United States of America. This constitution established America's national government and fundamental laws and guaranteed the basic rights for all of its citizens. The Constitution was signed on September 17th, 1787 by the delegates to the constitutional convention to the United St ates. In 1791, The Bill of Rights that guaranteed basic individual protections such as freedom of speech and religion became part of the Constitution.

An analysis of variations in style in comparison to Standard English Essay Example for Free

An analysis of variations in style in comparison to Standard English Essay 1. Introduction As in every language there are many different dialect in British English. It has always been and continues to be a language of dialects. Wherever one goes in England there are very obvious differences between the ways in which people speak in different places. This is often a big shock for people who have been learning Standard English which is the variety of English that is held to be correct in the sense that it shows none of the regional or other variations that are considered by some to be ungrammatical, or non-standard English. Non-English school-kids learn SE at school and expect to understand every English person once they enter the country. But the English they learn at school differs from the language which is being spoken in Britain. Of course, SE is used in the media and by public figures, and therefore it has prestige status and is regarded by many as the most desirable form of the language.1 But the English do not speak like that linguistic reality is different. Not only the words which are being used sometimes differ from Standard English even the grammatical structures vary at times. This work tries to present the differences between Standard English which is being taught at German schools and the dialects which are spoken in England. Altogether these factors might lead to confusing situations at times. German school-kids could hear words in England which they were told not to pronounce in that way when they were learning English at school. Hughes and Trudgill2 speak of two ways of dealing with the problem of native Britons not being able to speak their own language correctly. They point out that for learners it is not relevant weather their hear correct English or not. The problem which their are confronted with is to understand what they hear from the native speakers and which language-features they can adapt into their own speech. The second point they speak of is if that the notion of correctness is not really useful or appropriate in describing the language of native speakers.3 To find those differences I will analyse German English books from a Orientierungsstufe4, literature about dialects in Britain as well as private sources. I will try to analyse the gap between German school English an find possible solutions for that problem. 11 At the beginning of my approach I will be presenting a selection of different accents regarding their regional usage. In the following point I will analyse Standard English which is being taught in German schools and compare these results with the accents mentioned beforehand. After that I will summarize my approaches and try to find explanations as well as possible solutions. 2. The main dialects I want to start off with the presentation of the main dialects of the English language. For this I will adapt the Dialectology of Baugh5 who differentiates between Northern, West Midlands, East Midlands and Southern. In Old English they were divided into Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon and Kentish6. Of course there are far more divisions of accents but this would exceed the length of this piece of work. Additionally, I will conclude Cockney7 in my analysis. 2.1. Northern English This dialect is also knows as Geordie8. The Northeast area contains the urban centres of Newcastle, Sunderland, Middlesborough and neighboring areas. Trudgill9 defines some of the best-known characteristics of the modern Northeast pronunciation which include the following. According to him the accent, as we have seen, does not have the diphthongal pronunciations of the long a vowel in made, gate, face that are more typical of the south of England, and the same is true of long o as in boat, road, load. It can be defined as a certain kind of simplification. Instead of the Standard English Combination of two vowels in boat [bà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ut] only one vowel is being used: [oo] The same phenomenon can be found within the pronunciation of words like made, which are not being pronounced [mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½id] but simplified [mehd]. Trudgill also points out that words that have al in the spelling are pronounced with a vowel of the type ah, so that all is ahl and walk is wahk. A Geordie-joke makes this difference clear in a funny way: A non-Geordie doctor who asks his patient if he is able to walk makes the patient interprets as a query about work ans replies Wawk! I cannot even wahk yet! 11 The second part of the Northern area, the Lower North and Central North, covers, according to Trudgill, a large area stretching down from Carlisle to Sheffield and covering Cumbria, most of Yorkshire and parts of Lancashire. He points out that this dialect differs from the Northeast by not having ee in very. 10 Another remarkable factor he mentions is that he Central North also contains a sub-area in which an interesting type of consonantal change takes place in certain conditions. What happens is that the voiced consonants b, d, g, v, z and j change to their voiceless counterpart p, t, k, f, s, and ch if they occur immediately before any of these same voiceless consonants.11 The examples E wood goh (He would go) and E woot coom (He would come). They would pronounce the expression I dont know like I doont noo. Another point is that this dialect is quite similar to the accent Indians or Pakistanis have when they talk English. Many of these dialectal features also appear in their accent. These shared features could be analysed in future for the Asian community in Britain is increasing steadily is growing. Which words, expressions are being brought into English through them would be interesting to find out. 2.2. West Midlands The central town for this accent is Liverpool. for the accent is very distinctive for this area called Merseyside. It has been mainly influenced by Irish immigrants during the nineteenth century. Hughes/Trudgill12 describe the Liverpool accent defining several features of which I will be mentioning a few. 1. a) There is no contrast between pairs of words like put and putt, both being pronounced [put]. b) [à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½] occurs in words like dance, daft etc. [] c) Words like book and cook have the vowel [u:] 2. Unlike in other northern urban accents (but in common with Newcastle), the final vowels of words like city and seedy is [i:] 3. A relative infrequency of glottal stop occurs. 4. [h] is usually absent, but is sometimes present (him an her) 5. The suffix -ing is [in] 11 2.3. East Midlands Based on own experience I can say that one of the clearest markers for the East Midland accent can be defined as a kind of parallelism to German which also appear in the Liverpool accent at times. The word bus, for instance, is not being pronounced [bas] but [bus]. Here, the vowel [u] is being pronounced the same way as in German. The same phenomenon can be found in words like. Another marker for East Midland accent is the pronunciation of the vowel combination [oe] like in shoes, where it is being changed to [à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½] [shà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½z]. Speakers in this area may even have short e at the end of words like coffeh13. Trudgill mentions a diagnostic sentence for this area: Veri few cahs mayd it up the long ill.14 2.4. Southern English Some of these dialectal features of Southern English are similar to the welsh accent. Trudgill states that the Bristol speech is famous for the presence in this accent of a phenomenon called the Bristol I. He explains that in the Bristol area, words such as America, India, Diana, Gloria are pronounced with a final I. Undoubtedly, foreigners would be quite confused hearing words like Americal, Indial and Dianal. This feature might be a result of hypercorrection, according to Trudgill.15 In the South the glottal stop is very common as a pronunciation of t which can be found in words like better, water, bet and what. This feature can also be found in Cockney or Midland areas. Trudgill mentions the diagnostic feature of the South are the lack of y in few, which differentiates it from all other English regions except the Northeast, although today h is rapidly being lost.16 He also notes that it a typical factor for East Anglia is the lack of distinction between the vowels of here and there, so that peer sounds like pair, here like hair and deer like dare.17 2.5. Cockney Cockney can be counted as a very special dialect because it can only be found amongst people who live in and around the London area. Let alone the name for this accent is special because it does not refer directly to the region. 11 The term Cockney originally stems from the middles ages where it was applied to an effeminate person, simpleton or a particularly weak man from a town as opposed to a countryman who was regarded as tougher. In the 17th century the term changed and came to mean specifically a Londoner. The six most striking features of Cockney are18: 1. r is pronounced only when followed immediately by a vowel-sound. So, in the demonstration below, no r is pronounced in flowers. (Some New England accents and Southern U.S. accents have this same feature.) 2. h is usually omitted (home in the demonstration words); in self-conscious speech its articulated very strongly. 3. l is pronounced only when a vowel-sound follows (so no l is pronounced in hole, etc.). 4. Voiceless th is often, but not always, pronounced as f (breath, etc.). 5. Voiced th is likewise often but not always pronounced as v (breathe, etc.) This feature is also found in Southern U.S. lower social class speech. 6. The long vowels are all diphthongs, as one can hear from the demonstration words. Notice especially the difference between force etc. (spelled with r followed by a consonant, though the r is not pronounced) and poor etc. (spelled with r not followed by a consonant, though again the r is not pronounced). More examples for this would be: price [proià ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½] mother [mawa] little [liou] with a glottal stop in the middle note [no] with a glottal stop at the end bowl [bao] Cockney has another speciality. It consists of a special vocabulary which is called Cockney rhyming slang. It has been evolving in the East End of London since the sixteenth century. It is thought to have originated from the seamen and soldiers who used the London docks, from the Gypsies who arrived in the fifteen hundreds, from the Irish residents and the Jewish faction and from all the other ethnic minorities which have made up the population of the city.19 11 It is said to have started as a way for costermongers20 to communicate without letting their customers know what they were saying. The slang usually consists of two words, e.g. butchers hook = look but sometimes only the first word is used in conversation. For example, someone might say I had a butchers at her barnet and her titfer meaning I had a look at her hair (barnet fair) and her hat (tit for tat). One has to know, though, when to use the whole phrase and when to abbreviate. Another example: Would you Adam and Eve it? I was on me Jack Jones when I saw me old china half inching a whistle from the market. Well, I aint no grass and hes borassic, so I kept me north and south shut. Translation: Would you believe it? I was on my own when I saw my old mate (friend) pinching (stealing) a suit from the market. Well, Im not a nark (informer) and hes skint (got no money, hard up) so I kept my mouth shut. In the Internet a whole dictionary can be found consisting of old and new Rhyming-Slang. The freshest contribution was the expression Becks and Posh for food. Food is also called nosh which rhymes with the nicknames of the famous David and Victoria Beckham, nationwide known as Becks and Posh21. This last example makes it clear that the rhyming slang does not have and economical reasons behind. It is more or less result of playing with words which the English are very fond of (for example in newspaper headlines). Additionally it is of course, the sense of togetherness, a kind of linguistic fellowship by defining a secret language as a code of London residents whereas this point, regarding the high population rate, refers more to small groups of people. 3. Standard English English-teaching in lower-saxony English has the status of a global language nearly everybody applying for a good job needs to prove his or her English skills. The competition is getting harder and harder. This is one of the factors leading to the current discussion whether to introduce English to schoolchildren at an even earlier age then 10. Some primary schools offer this already. Another interesting fact is that more and more schools offer bilingual teaching. The Ricarda-Huch-Schule in Braunschweig, for instance, offers several subjects being taught in English to make the children learn both, biology and English, at once. 11 Like this English finds its way into our life in more and more ways. But coming back to education a problem arises. Of course, children cannot learn every single accent being spoken in England, so that is why there are set forms for the learning process. They are identical to the language understood by the term of Standard English. Different then in Germany there cannot be found any accent-free regions in England. In comparison to that you can find unofficial figures which tell us that Hanover is most likely to be accent-free. Standard English, on the other hand, is more of an indicator for an upper social status, it can be seen as a class-dialect, owing its origin in the main not to geographical but to socio-economic causes. At the end it is quite a thin border between the English which is being taught at foreign schools and the English which is meant to represent poshness. Wakelin22 marks that a distinction must be made between Standard English, which is a dialect in use by educated speakers of English throughout the world, and Received Pronunciation, which is the accent of English usually associated with a higher social or academic background, with the BBC and the professions, and that most commonly taught to students learning English as a foreign language.23 So one has to clearly differentiate between Received Pronunciation (RP) and Standard English (SE). So, why is Standard English so different from the other accents then? Wakelin defines that Standard English is the sort of language used when communicating beyond the family, close friends and acquaintances, whereas dialect is nowadays often kept for intimate circles.24 So it can be seen as the most relevant English accent which can be understood everywhere and is compatible to every region in England. This type of English as being called normal English by Randolph Quirk25 is being taught children and adults all around the world. The following graphic tries to illustrate the violation which arises when both Standard English and regional accents clash. 11 People with different mother tongues learn English as their first or as another foreign language. They all refer to the same Vocabulary, use the same grammar and expressions which have been set by the Standard English-norm. 3.1. Comparison to English accents The chapter of English Sounds prepares the learning schoolchildren with the explanation that English words are often being pronounced differently than they are written and defines some words by using the phonetical alphabet.26 I want to show the differences of Standard English and English accents by directly comparing several words to each other. Referring to the pronunciation I want to compare the word but which is being pronounced with a short [u] in South England and with a long [oo] in Northern England27 whereas schoolchildren learn to pronounce the word but with an [28? There is one area of England where the y sound has been lost as a result of a historical process. This can be found in words like beauty [booty], music [moosic] and few [foo]29 and is probably going to spread more with the years. 11 Whereas in foreign schools it is still being taught that music should be pronounced [mju:zik]30 and beautiful [bju:t?f?l]31. The pronunciation of milk also differs. Camden Market teaches the children to pronounce it [mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½lk]32 but the pronunciation according to the modern dialectology says that in a large area of southeastern England this consonant has aquired a short oo-like vowel in fron of it, or, especially in London itself, has disappeared altogether, leaving only the oo behind.33 So in this case the word milk is being pronounced [mioolk] which is being defined as a quite a recent change but spreading rapidly through the country. Now shifting over to the less problematical field of lexical variations it can be said that there are several words with the same meaning but regionally fixed. Words like the Standard English term gymshoe are known as the general term but in England they have more expressions for that. In the southern region they are called plimsolls, in middle English they are called pumps and people living in and around Newcastle talk about sandshoes.34 The word ear has also has different regional variations. In the North they talk about lugs and around Nottinghamshire one can also hear them talking about tabs. The Eastern part of England also might use lug. Standard English, of course, only teaches ear. 4. Summary On the whole it there is a big gap to be found between the English which is being taught in schools and the English which is being spoken in England. My analysis makes it quite clear that several difficulties occur when a person who has been learning English for five years and thinks he is now prepared for the linguistic challenge in England. The reality is different, as my paper shows. There is nearly nobody who speaks accent-free English but on the other hand Standard English mixes into the accents more and more. The loss of pure dialects is being mourned about in the whole country. The dialects are no longer pure, if they ever were, but contain a large admixture of Standard English or pseudo-Standard forms, as Wakelin35 mentions. The main reason for this development might be the result of the following problem: 11 In England is that people often get discriminated because of their language. The dialect is a clear social marker these days. Many countries have problem with racism, but in England people sometimes get discriminated against if they sound different. For example: A Scouse accent refers to a very rough area and there are chances are that the speaker is a thief A Posh accent: If people talk like this then they are supposedly educated, and can be trusted. Others would think your a rich person, and that your stuck up and you went to a boarding school. A Brummie accent: If a person speaks like this, then chances are that people think he is stupid. A Geordie accent: For some reason, the geordie accent is more comforting to southerners in England out of all the northern accents. Even though a Geordie can live in just as much a rough area, than a scouser if not rougher. A Yorkshire accent: There is a saying about this dialect called Yorkshire born, yorkshire bread, thick in the arm and thick in the head? A Cornish accent: If somebody talks like this most people think they are a farmer. The significance of accents and their cultural and social associations is well represented in films and on television in Britain. The critically acclaimed 1964 file My fair Lady based on George Bernard Shaws 1912 play, Pygmalion is often referenced in linguistic discussions as a example of how social class and accent were, and are still, inextricably linked in Britain. Over the past years, numerous television series have also provided viewers with a glimpse of the lives and accents of the Cockney population of London. The Cockney English section talks more about the current, very popular long running television series EastEnders. This opposes my supposition that Standard English might not be the right form to teach people English or should only form the basis of the linguistic education. The fact that the dialects are slowly dying and Standard English is spreading all over the world questions this. Additionally, more and more immigrants from mainly the Asian region bring in a new Standard English which I have been mentioning in point 2.1. At the end, I would say that English language teaching should be more concerned about real life and the real speech avoiding throwing the young learners into a cold pool when they enter the country. 11 A possible solution for this could be to strengthen the bonds of international relations between schools. Pen-friendships and school-exchanges could provide the basis of a more reality-based teaching which would undoubtedly also have the effect of arousing the childrens enthusiasm of learning English. 5. Literature Baugh, A.C.: A History of the English Language, p. 235 Davis, Lawrence M.: English Dialectology. Alabama/USA: 1983, p. 8 Edelhoff, Christoph (Hrg.): Camden Market. Hannover: 1998, p. 146 Hughes, Arthur and Trudgill, Peter: English Accents and Dialects, London: 1996. p. 1 Trudgill, Peter: The dialects of England. Oxford: 1990, p. 51 Wakelin, Martyn F.: English Dialects. An Introduction. London: 1977, p. 5 Quirk, Randolph: The Use of English. London: 1962, p. 95 Internet: http://www.cockneyrhymingslang.co.uk/ http://www.derek.co.uk/cockney.htm http://www.geordie.org.uk/ http://www.phespirit.info/cockney/ http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/standard-english.html 1http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/standard-english.html 2Hughes, Arthur and Trudgill, Peter: English Accents and Dialects. London: 1996, p. 1 3s. a. 4Orientierungsstufe Westhagen/Wolfsburg 5Baugh, A.C.: A History of the English Language, p. 235 6Davis, Lawrence M.: English Dialectology. Alabama/USA: 1983, p. 8 7Most common accent in and around London 8http://www.geordie.org.uk/ 9Trudgill, Peter: The dialects of England. Oxford: 1990, p. 67 10Trudgill, Peter: The dialects of England. Oxford: 1990, p. 67 11see above 12Hughes, Arthur and Trudgill, Peter: English Accents and Dialects. New York (1996), p. 92 13Trudgill, Peter: The dialects of England. Oxford: 1990, p. 71 14see above, p. 72 15see above, p. 73 16see above, p. 72 17see above, p. 74 18http://www.derek.co.uk/cockney.htm 19http://www.phespirit.info/cockney/ 20= street and market sellers 21http://www.cockneyrhymingslang.co.uk/ 22Wakelin, Martyn F.: English Dialects. An Introduction. London: 1977 23Wakelin, Martyn F.: English Dialects. An Introduction. London: 1977, p. 5 24Wakelin, Martyn F.: English Dialects. An Introduction. London: 1977, p. 5 25Quirk, Randolph: The Use of English. London: 1962, p. 95 26Edelhoff, Christoph (Hrg.): Camden Market. Hannover: 1998, p. 146 27Trudgill, Peter: The dialects of England. Oxford: 1990, p. 51 28Edelhoff, Christoph (Hrg.): Camden Market. Hannover: 1998, p. 146 29Trudgill, Peter: The dialects of England. Oxford: 1990, p. 57 30Edelhoff, Christoph (Hrg.): Camden Market. Hannover: 1998, p. 179 31see above, p. 173 32see above, p. 178 33Trudgill, Peter: The dialects of England. Oxford: 1990, p. 60 34see above, p. 102 35Wakelin, Martyn F.: English Dialects. An Introduction. London: 1977, p. 5

Solar Cell and Solar Energy Materials

Solar Cell and Solar Energy Materials Introduction: One of the biggest challenges to mankind is highly depended on the decreasing fusil fuels such as oil, coal, natural gas. Fusil fuels are nonrenewable energy resource which usually takes million of years to form. As a result, their reserves are depleted much faster than it forms. Furthermore, the combustion of these fuels causes environmental degradation through air pollution and global warming. Combustion of carbon-based fossil fuels creates not only air pollutants, for example, sulfur oxides, nitrogen odixe and heavy metals, but also carbon di-oxide, the notorious greenhouse gas widely considered to be the number one culprit of global climate change.[1] In order to protect our environment and provide energy security, energy generated from renewable sources has been extensively studied.[2] Though it will take some decades to come close to a truly sustainable energy system, the research is being conducted to find solutions to (1) increase efficiency in production, transmission, and u tilization of the remaining fossil fuels, (2) reduce negative impacts to the environment, and (3) develop or improve technologies and infrastructure for the smooth transition to the alternative/ renewable energy sources (e.g., nuclear power, solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, biomass and biofuels, and hydropower).[3] Among those, solar energy has many advantages such as availability and lower cost. The search and synthesis for low cost solar cell materials made of earth abundant elements has been a topic of extensive study across the globe. A brief historical background: In 1839,the photovoltaic effect was discovered by French physicist, Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel. He constructed the worlds first photovoltaic cell in his fathers laboratory at age nineteen, which was the beginning of solar energy materials technology. This experiment was done by illuminating two electrodes, which were coated by light sensitive semiconducting materials, with different types of light. He observed that electricity increases with the increase of light intensity. Then an English electrical engineer, Willoughby Smith, was discovered the photo conductivity of selenium in 1873. In 1883,Charles Fritts built the first true solar cells made from selenium wafer which is coated with a thin layer of gold. He found that the efficiency was only about 1%. In 1905, Albert Einstein published in a paper that light consists of â€Å"packets† or quanta of energy, which can be varied only with its frequency.[4] This theory was very simple, but revolutionary that explained the data of photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect was experimentally proved by an American experimental physicist, Robert Andrews Millikan, who later won the Nobel Prize for the photoelectric effect and measurement of the charge of the electron. In 1954, a single-crystal cell of germanium and a cadmium sulphide p-n junction was developed with an efficiency of 6%. Later the University of Delaware found that the efficiency exceeds 10% with the first thin film solar cell which was made of copper sulfide and cadmium sulfide in 1980. In 2007,they achieved 42.8% efficiency in solar cell technology.[5] To date, the highest 44.8% efficiencies have been achieved by using multiple junction solar cells. Solar cell: Solar cell is electrical device which converts solar radiation into electricity by photoelectric effect. It consists of two types of semiconducting materials, one is n-type and another is p-type. When these two types of materials placed with each other, it forms depletion layer at middle of these two materials. When sun light falls on the depletion layer the materials absorb photon and the electron from filled valence band excites to the unfilled conduction band, which creates a hole and electron pair. The hole goes to the p-type conductor and the electron goes to the n-type conductor. If we complete the circuit by connecting these two materials we will see there is flow of electricity. [6] Fig 1: A schematic diagram of solar cell Some important Solar cell and solar energy materials Solar cells are typically consists of semiconducting materials and these cells are named after thesemiconducting materialsthey are made of. Thesematerialsmust have certain characteristics in order to absorbsunlight. Some solar cells are designed to absorb sunlight that reaches the Earths surface, while others are constructed foruse in space. Solar cells can be made of only one layer of light absorbing semiconducting material which is called single-junction. Sometimes cells can be made of multiple layers of semiconducting materials to take advantage of wide range of absorption and charge separation mechanisms which is called multi-junction. Solar cells can be classified into three categories according to generation: The first generation cells also called traditional, conventional orwafer based cells that are made ofcrystalline silicon which includes materials such asmono-crystalline and poly-silicon silicon. Second generation cells arethin film solar cells, that includeamorphous silicon,CdTeandCIGScells and are commercially significant in utility-scale photovoltaic power stations,building integrated photovoltaicsor in smallstand alone devices. The third generation of solar cells includes a number of thin-film technologies often described as emerging photovoltaics which are not yet commercially applied and are still in the research or development phase such as perovskite solar cells and quantum dots solar cells. Crystalline silicon The most prevalent bulk material for solar cells iscrystalline silicon(c-Si), also known as solar grade silicon. Bulk silicon is separated into two categories according to crystallinity and crystal size. Mono-crystalline silicon Polycrystalline silicon In 1981, the first solar panels based on polycrystalline silicon, which also is known as polysilicon (p-Si) and multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si),was introduced to the market. Unlike monocrystalline-based solar panels, polycrystalline solar panels do not require the Czochralski process. Raw silicon is melted and poured into a square mold, which is cooled and cut into perfectly square wafers. Polysilicon cells are the most common type used in photovoltaics and are less expensive, yet less efficient than those made from monocrystalline silicon. Thin film Thin film technologies reduce the amount of active material in a cell. Most designs sandwich active material between two panes of glass. Since silicon solar panels only use one pane of glass, thin film panels are approximately twice as heavy as crystalline silicon panels, although they have a smaller ecological impact.[8]The majority of film panels have 2-3 percentage points lower conversion efficiencies than crystalline silicon. Cadmium telluride(CdTe),copper indium gallium selenide(CIGS) andamorphous silicon(a-Si) are three thin-film technologies often used for outdoor applications. CIGS technology laboratory demonstrations reached 20.4% as of December 2013. The lab efficiency of GaAs thin film technology topped 28%. Thequantum efficiencyof thin film solar cells is also lower due to reduced number of collected charge carriers per incident photon. Most recently, CZTS solar cell emerge as the less-toxic thin film solar cell technology, which achieved ~12% efficiency. Cadmium telluride Cadmium telluride is the only thin film material so far to rival crystalline silicon in cost/watt. However cadmium is a highly toxic andtelluriumsupplies are limited. Thecadmiumpresent in the cells would be toxic if released. However, release is impossible during normal operation of the cells and is unlikely during fires in residential roofs.[9]A square meter of CdTe contains approximately the same amount of Cd as a single C cellnickel-cadmium battery, in a more stable and less soluble form.[9] Copper indium gallium selenide Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is adirect band gapmaterial. It has the highest efficiency (~20%) among all commercially significant thin film materials. Traditional methods of fabrication involve vacuum processes including co-evaporation and sputtering. Recent developments atIBMandNanosolar attempt to lower the cost by using non-vacuum solution processes. Gallium arsenide thin film The semiconductor materialGallium arsenide(GaAs) is also used for single-crystalline thin film solar cells. Although GaAs cells are very expensive, they hold the worlds record in efficiency for asingle-junctionsolar cell at 28.8%.[10]GaAs is more commonly used inmultijunction photovoltaic cellsforconcentrated photovoltaics and forsolar panels on spacecrafts, as the industry favours efficiency over cost forspace-based solar power. Perovskite solar cells The name perovskite solar cell is derived from the ABX3crystal structureof the absorber materials, which is referred to as perovskite structure. The most commonly studied perovskite absorber is methylammonium lead trihalide (CH3NH3PbX3, where X is ahalogenion such asI−,Br−,Cl−). Formamidinumlead trihalide (H2NCH3NH3PbX3) is a recently studied newer material which shows promise, with a bandgap between 2.23eV and 1.48eV. This minimum bandgap is closer to the optimal for asingle-junction cellthan methylammonium lead trihalide, so it should be capable of higher efficiencies. The efficiencies of perovskite solar cell have increased to 12.8% in 2014.[11] This increased efficiency is making them a very rapidly advancing technology and a hot topic in the solar cell field. Perovskite solar cells are also forecast to be extremely cheap to scale up, making them a very attractive option for commercialization. Quantum dots semiconductor solar cell: Quantum dots are tiny particles or nanocrystals of a semiconducting material with diameters in the range of 2-10 nanometers. Due to high surface to volume ratios for these particles, quantum dots display unique electronic properties, intermediate between those of bulk semiconductors and discrete molecules. Due to their small size, the electrons in quantum dots are confined in a small space which is called quantum box. When the radii of the semiconductor nanocrystal is smaller than the exciton Bohr radius (exciton Bohr radius is the average distance between the electron in the conduction band and the hole it leaves behind in the valence band), there is quantization of the energy levels according to Pauli’s exclusion principle (Figure 1).[12][13]The discrete, quantized energy levels of quantum dots relate them more closely to atoms than bulk materials. Generally, as the size of the crystal decreases, the difference in energy between the highest valence band and the lowest conduc tion band increases. More energy or more energy light is then needed to excite an electron from valance band to conduction band. Therefore, the properties of semiconducting materials can be tuned by changing the size of the quantum dots. By using different sized quantum dots in multi-layer junction we can absorb wide range of light. Figure 4: Splitting of energy levels in quantum dots due to the quantum confinement effect, semiconductor band gap increases with decrease in size of the nanocrystal.[12][13] Conclusion The primary energy sources: coal, oil and natural gas are fossil fuels are polluting our environment. Furthermore, these resources are quickly depleting and becoming extremely expensive day by day. Therefore, weneedtoconsiderrenewableenergysources such as solar energy, by using solar cells we cangenerate electricalpower by converting solar energy intoelectricity. Reference: Wang, Zhong Lin.Nanotechnology for the energy challenge. Ed. Javier Garcà ­a-Martà ­nez. John Wiley Sons, 2013. Hou, Yu, Ruxandra Vidu, and Pieter Stroeve. Solar energy storage methods.Industrial Engineering Chemistry Research50.15 (2011): 8954-8964. Moniz, E. J.; Garcia-Martinez, J. Nanotechnology for the Energy Challenge; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2010 Einstein, Albert. The photoelectric effect.Ann. Phys17 (1905): 132. Delaware University, US, HP http://www.udel.edu/PR/ UDaily/2008/jul/solar072307 .html Li, Zhongrui, et al. Light-harvesting using high density p-type single wall carbon nanotube/n-type silicon heterojunctions.Acs Nano3.6 (2009): 1407-1414. Green, M. A. Recent developments in photovoltaics.Solar energy76.1 (2004): 3-8. Pearce, Joshua, and Andrew Lau. Net energy analysis for sustainable energy production from silicon based solar cells.ASME Solar 2002: International Solar Energy Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2002. Fthenakis, Vasilis M. Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production.Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews8.4 (2004): 303-334. Yablonovitch, E., O. D. Miller, and S. R. Kurtz. The opto-electronic physics that broke the efficiency limit in solar cells.Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2012 38th IEEE. IEEE, 2012. Qin, Peng, et al. Perovskite Solar Cells with 12.8% Efficiency by Using Conjugated Quinolizino Acridine Based Hole Transporting Material.Journal of the American Chemical Society(2014). Reimann, S. M.; Manninen, M. Reviews of Modern Physics, 2002, 74(4), 1283. Bawendi, M. C.; Steigerwald, M. L.; Brus, L. E. Annual Review of Physical Chemistry, 1990, 41, 477.

Cohabitation, Marriage, and Divorce Essay -- Sociology

1.0 Introduction Cohabitation is and has been a norm in almost all societies in the world. It has been perceived as the stepping stone to marriage by the modern generation. In Whitman, (2003), cohabitation has grown so widely that there is one cohabiting couple out of 7 marriages in 2010 as compared to 1 out of 90 marriages in 1960. According to her, the attitude towards the whole of marriage institution has changed drastically over time. In the same article, currently in the US, of 3 single women, 1 chooses to live with their partners before marriage as compared to the 1950’s where only 1 out of 10 chooses so. Another statistics reveal that, the number of cohabitating partners have increased exponentially from 430,000 in 1960 to 5.4 million couples in 2005 (Fowler, R, 2008). From this shocking statistics, we ought to find out the advantages and disadvantages of cohabiting. Firstly, the meaning of cohabitation and marriage must be clearly defined before more research is done. From the Concise English Dictionary (9th Edition), cohabitation come from the word ‘cohabit’ which is defined as â€Å"live together, [especially] as husband and wife without being married to one another† while marriage is defined as â€Å"the legal union of a man and woman in order to live together and often to have children†. In today’s terms, long-term cohabitation is more known as an alternative to marriage. Couples now prefer cohabitation because of the ‘freedom’ and the ‘guarantee of compatibility’ that it allegedly offers. However, the issue about cohabitation that is questioned is the stability of the relationship. We know that cohabitation is recognized by any country in the world as a legal union of a man and woman. The question arises, ‘Will cohabitat... ...ation’, Family Matters, pp. 24-27, viewed 26th January 2012, Popenoe D., Whitehead B.D. (1999), ‘Should we live together? What young adults need to know about cohabitation before marriage.’ THE NATIONAL MARRIAGE PROJECT : The Next Generation Series, New Jersey, viewed 14 January, 2012, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, (1995), 9th ed, Oxford University Press Inc., New York. Whitehead, B.D. and Popenoe, D. (2000), ‘Sex without strings, relationships without rings’, The State of Our Unions, The Social Health of Marriage in America, The National Marriage Project, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, p. 13, New Jersey. Whitman, S. (2003), ‘Shacking up: The smart girl's guide to living in sin without getting burned’, Broadway, Washington.

Capital Punishment Essay - It’s Time to Turn the Other Cheek :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Capital Punishment – It’s Time to Turn the Other Cheek If... he has committed murder, he must die. In this case, there is no substitute that will satisfy the legal requirements of legal justice.There is no sameness of kind between death and remaining alive even under the most miserable conditions, and consequently there is no equality between crime and the retribution unless the criminal is judicially condemned and put to death." Immanuel Kant. About 2000 men, women, and teenagers currently wait on America's "Death Row." Their time grows shorter as federal and state courts increasingly ratify death penalty laws, allowing executions to proceed at an accelerated rate. It's unlikely that any of these executions will make the front page, having become more and more a matter of routine in the last decade. Indeed, recent public opinion polls show a wide margin of support for the death penalty. But human rights advocates continue to decry the immorality of state-sanctioned killing in the U.S., the only western industrialized country that continues to use the death penalty. Is capital punishment moral? Capital punishment is often defended on the grounds by the government, that society has a moral obligation to protect the safety and the welfare of its citizens. Murderers threaten this safety and welfare. Only by putting murderers to death can society ensure that convicted killers do not kill again. Second, those favoring capital punishment contend that society should support those practices that will bring about the greatest balance of good over evil, and capital punishment is one such practice. Capital punishment benefits society because it may deter violent crime. While it is difficult to produce direct evidence to support this claim since, by definition, those who are deterred by the death penalty do not commit murders, common sense tells us that they will die if they perform a certain act, they will be unwilling to perform that act. If the threat of death stays in the hand of a would-be murder, and we abolish the death penalty, we will sacrifice the lives of many innocent victims whose murders could have been deterred. But if, in fact, the death penalty does not deter, and we continue to impose it, we have only sacrificed the lives of convicted murderers. Surely it is better for society to take a gamble that the death penalty deters in order to protect the lives of innocent people than to take a gamble that it doesn't deter and thereby protect the lives of murderers, while risking the lives of the innocents. Finally, defenders of capital punishment argue that justice demands that

Ministers of Irish Education Essay

1. Since the foundation of the Irish Free State (1922) to the present day there have been 37 different ministers for education. Identify at least 4 of those ministers for education which you consider most significant. Critically evaluate the contribution they played in reforming the Irish Education Landscape. (50Marks) Today I will looked at 4 Irish Ministers of Education; John O’Sulllivan, Thomas Derrig, Donagh O’Malley and Ruairi Quinn and portray how I believe they contributed (and are contributing) hugely to the reform the Irish Education Landscape: 1. John M. O’Sullivan (Jan. 1926 – Mar. 1932) O’Sullivan was appointed to the Cabinet in 1926, serving under W. T. Cosgrave as Minister for Education. In 1926 a report from the Second National Programme Conference was presented to him as the Minister for Education. He accepted all proposals stated in the report to be recommended as a national curriculum. In 1926, he made Irish obligatory for registration as a Secondary School teacher & for ‘recognised’ (funded) schools. In 1926 under O’Sullivan, the School Attendance Act came into existence. It made it obligatory for all children between the age of 6 and 14 would attend school. O’Sullivan is also responsible for: Establishing the Commission on Technical Education in 1927 Setting up the Preparatory Colleges to train primary teachers in 1927 Introducing the Primary Certificate in 1929 As it became clear that many could not access suitable second level education discussions began on creating a continuation course to provide general education in a vocational style. The Vocational Education Act, 1930 was implemented by O’Sullivan. It reformed the technical education branch of the Department of Education and local Technical Education Boards. It introduced vocational schools, a new type of school with a greater emphasis on trade and commerce in courses. These courses were broken into continuation courses and traditional technical education courses. There were those who considered the system revolutionary and there were warnings of danger to faith and morals which could arise in the new multi denominational and co-educational schools to be provided. This was the state’s first attempt to take an active hand in establishing schools outside the power of the Roman Catholic Church. The Vocational Education Act was thee major ministerial achievement of the Minister. The act provided an avenue for a new approach to post primary education and to the introduction of the concept of education as a lifelong process. Here then was a new system which set out to educate through the medium of subjects themselves directly related to the world of work. It was not easily accepted. Education was regarded as the pursuit of abstract learning and the status of the educated person was almost in direct ratio to his/her inability to work with his/her hands. Even in today’s society, there is a still some stigmatism attached to attending a VEC school. However in reality such schools contribute so much to today’s society and as such Today we have 213 VEC second level schools and many further education, youthreach, traveller and prison education centres – a testament to O’Sullivan’s rein. 2. Thomas Derrig (Mar. 1932 – Sep. 1939) At the June 1927 general election he was elected to Dail Eireann as a Fianna Fail TD for Carlow–Kilkenny. In Eamon de Valera’s first government in 1932 Derrig was appointed Minister for Education. Derrig has been influential in cultivating of our education system – but not in a positive way: Derrig initiated a review of industrial and reformatory schools and the rules under the Children Act 1908, resulting in the critical 1936 Cussen Report, which he shelved. His lack of action was noted in 2009 when the Ryan Report examined the subsequent management of these â€Å"residential institutions†; Derrig was the first minister to seek a report that could have resulted in much-needed reforms. A call for public inquiry into industrial schools was rejected by Minister of Education. Thomas Derrig because â€Å"it would serve no useful purpose†. It has been suggested that he did not want to follow British law reforms in the 1920s and 1930s because of his strong anti-British views, and that Irish children had suffered needlessly as a result. Under Derrig’s rein, he not only effect teacher salaries, but also banned married female teachers from working. According to Diarmaid Ferriter (2004) in his book The Transformation of Ireland 1900 – 2000, the marriage ban imposed on female primary teachers from 1934 to 1958 seemed to attract little public comment, despite the fact that many untrained single teachers were replacing trained married female teachers. The INTO was not vocal in objecting on the basis of gender equality, and whatever opposition existed in the union was overshadowed by its campaigns on wage levels. This was a sign of the times in my opinion, where women had very little power or voice. It is probably only in the past few decades that this move to ban female teachers has really been viewed as scandalous and backwards. While the rest of Europe moved forward with education reform after World War Two, Derrig resisted such reviews. Derrig’s narrow mindedness cost us – academically and for so many young innocent children –physically and emotionally. 3. Donogh O’Malley (July 1966 – Mar. 1968) Following Fianna Fail’s return to government following the 1965 general election O’Malley joined the cabinet as Minister for Health. He spent just over one year in this position before he was appointed Minister for Education, a position where he will be forever remembered for his dynamism as a minister. Having succeeded another dynamic young minister, Patrick Hillary, O’Malley acted swiftly to introduce the recommendations that were made in an official report regarding education. Shortly after he was appointed he announced that from 1969 all schools up to Intermediate Certificate level would be free and that free buses would bring students from rural area to the nearest school. O’Malley seems to have made this decision himself without consulting other ministers, however, he did discuss it with Lemass. Jack Lynch, who as Minister for Finance had to find the money to pay for it, was certainly not consulted and was dismayed at the announcement. In spite of this O’Malley’s proposals were hugely popular with the public and it was impossible for the government to go back on its word. As minister O’Malley also extended the school transport scheme and commissioned the building of new non-denominational comprehensive and community schools in areas where they were lacking. He also introduced Regional Technical Colleges (RTCs), now called Institutes of Technology, in areas where there was no third level college in proximity. The best example of this successful policy is Limerick, now a university, where O’Malley is credited with taking the steps to ensure the university came into existence. His plan to merge Trinity College, Dublin and University College Dublin aroused huge controversy and was not successful, despite being supported by his cabinet colleague Brian Lenihan. Access to third level education was also extended as the old scholarship system was replaced by a system of means-tested grants which gave easier access to less well-off students. Because of O’Malley, the working class and middle class of Ireland are far better. Four decades on from the 1960s and we have a 4 fold increase in retention rates, with 82% retention of students to Leaving Cert. However I argue the validity of the grants system that he hoped put in place. As Niamh Bhreathnach commented in the Irish Independent in September 2002, O’Malley would be turning in his grave if he knew how the grants system was been exploited at that time. As the students of Ireland fight to hold onto the grants system as we know it, I personally feel it’s a pity that O’Malley didn’t introduce a student loan system like England’s system. It certainly would cost the Irish Taxpayer less. 4. Ruairi Quinn (2011 – Present) Whilst still in office, I believe that R. Quinn has and will continue to significantly contribute in the reforming the Irish Education Landscape. Within one year, Ruairi Quinn has shown how an energetic Minister can drive the education agenda and push for change. In April 2012 the report on The Forum on Patronage and Pluralism was published. In the Primary Sector, The fact that 96% of primary schools in Ireland are under denominational patronage is unique among developed countries. The group has advised that the first phase in divesting schools should involve 258 schools in 18 dioceses across 47 areas. How the Minister will carry out this task remains to be seen. However he is determined to carry this out and I believe as such it will be one of the most significant changes in our educational landscape since O’Malley’s introduction of free schooling. The 8 subject Junior Certificate currently being introduced by Quinn will change the landscape of learning for our students. I hope that with this introduction, I can as a teacher continue to use active learning activities in the classroom and concentrate on lifelong learning rather than the system of rote learning that exists at the minute. The minister also announced in May 2012 that Chinese will become a subject in the Leaving Certificate and he also announced an optional short course on Chinese language and culture which will be made available as part of the new Junior Cert cycle programme from 2014. As Quinn’s ministry continues to push on with the ideology of a 2 year teaching course, I am glad I am completing this course in 2012 and not in 2014. While I understand the ideology of this move, I do not believe it will improve teaching standards in Ireland. I believe that scholar students (regardless of their vocation) will look at the time it takes to become a teacher and the monetary rewards of it (which unfortunately is on the decrease) and the fact they could have for instance a medical degree in the same amount of time with brighter economic aspirations. It is my sincere hope that such visions do not come through. Today I have looked at 4 Irish Ministers of Education; John O’Sulllivan, Thomas Derrig, Donagh O’Malley and Ruairi Quinn and I truly believe they contributed (and are contributing) hugely to the reform the Irish Education Landscape.